English for Pulmonology: Essential Vocabulary & Phrases

"alveoli"

Tiny air sacs at the ends of the bronchioles in the lungs where gas exchange between air and blood takes place

"Damage to the alveoli in emphysema reduces the surface area available for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, causing progressive breathlessness."

"bronchioles"

Small, thin-walled airways that branch from the bronchi and lead to the alveoli, lacking cartilage in their walls

"During an asthma attack, the smooth muscle surrounding the bronchioles contracts, narrowing the airway and making it difficult to breathe."

"pleura"

The double-layered membrane that surrounds each lung and lines the chest cavity, with a small amount of fluid between its layers reducing friction

"Inflammation of the pleura, known as pleuritis, causes a sharp stabbing pain in the chest that worsens with every breath."

"diaphragm"

The dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs that is the primary muscle of breathing, contracting downward to increase lung volume during inhalation

"Paralysis of the diaphragm on one side, seen after phrenic nerve injury, often causes only mild breathlessness because the other side compensates."

"carina"

The ridge of cartilage at the base of the trachea where it divides into the left and right main bronchi, a key landmark in bronchoscopy

"Widening of the carina on a chest X-ray is an important sign that may indicate enlarged lymph nodes or a centrally located tumour."

"hilum"

The region on the medial surface of each lung where the bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter and exit

"Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, or enlargement of lymph nodes at both hila, is a classic radiological finding in sarcoidosis."

"trachea"

The main airway, also called the windpipe, that connects the larynx to the bronchi and is kept open by C-shaped rings of cartilage

"A foreign body lodged in the trachea requires immediate bronchoscopic or surgical removal to prevent complete airway obstruction."

"surfactant"

A mixture of lipids and proteins produced by type II alveolar cells that reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing their collapse at the end of exhalation

"Premature infants born before 34 weeks gestation often lack sufficient surfactant, causing respiratory distress syndrome that requires ventilatory support."

"COPD"

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease; a progressive lung condition characterised by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully reversible, usually caused by long-term tobacco smoke exposure

"The spirometry results confirmed COPD, showing a post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC ratio of less than 0.70 and an FEV1 of 55% predicted."

"bronchospasm"

Sudden tightening of the muscles in the walls of the bronchi, causing airway narrowing, wheezing, and difficulty breathing

"Exercise-induced bronchospasm in the athlete was managed with a short-acting beta-agonist inhaler taken 15 minutes before training."

"emphysema"

A form of COPD in which the walls of the alveoli are destroyed, creating larger but fewer air spaces and permanently reducing the surface area for gas exchange

"The chest X-ray of the heavy smoker showed flattening of the diaphragm and hyperinflation of the lungs, consistent with severe emphysema."

"chronic bronchitis"

A clinical diagnosis defined as productive cough on most days for at least three months per year for two consecutive years, caused by chronic inflammation and excess mucus production in the bronchi

"The patient with chronic bronchitis complained of a daily productive cough every winter for the past four years, particularly worse in the mornings."

"air trapping"

A phenomenon in obstructive lung disease in which air becomes retained in the lungs after exhalation because the airways collapse before emptying fully

"Air trapping was evident on the CT scan as areas of abnormally low density that persisted on the expiratory images, consistent with small airways disease."

"hyperinflation"

An abnormal increase in the residual volume of air in the lungs, occurring in obstructive disease when air trapping causes the lungs to become overinflated

"Dynamic hyperinflation during exercise in COPD patients leads to diaphragmatic flattening and severely limits their exercise capacity."

"bronchiectasis"

Permanent and irreversible dilation of the bronchi caused by repeated cycles of infection and inflammation that destroy the airway walls

"The patient with cystic fibrosis had extensive bronchiectasis on the high-resolution CT scan, with bilateral cylindrical and varicose changes throughout both lungs."

"asthma exacerbation"

A sudden worsening of asthma symptoms — wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough — that requires a step-up in treatment

"The child presented to the emergency department in the middle of the night with a severe asthma exacerbation triggered by a viral upper respiratory tract infection."

"pulmonary fibrosis"

Scarring and thickening of lung tissue that reduces lung compliance and gas exchange capacity, progressing over time and causing worsening breathlessness

"Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis carries a median survival of only three to five years from diagnosis, making early referral to a specialist centre essential."

"ground-glass opacity"

A hazy area of increased density on a CT scan through which the normal lung structures are still visible, representing partial filling of the alveolar spaces or thickening of the interstitium

"Bilateral ground-glass opacities on the CT scan of the COVID-19 patient suggested active viral pneumonitis rather than bacterial superinfection."

"honeycombing"

A CT pattern of clustered ring-shaped cysts of similar size seen in advanced fibrotic lung disease, typically located in the subpleural region of the lower lobes

"The presence of honeycombing on high-resolution CT scan is a key criterion for the diagnosis of usual interstitial pneumonia, the pathological pattern of IPF."

"sarcoidosis"

A multisystem inflammatory disease of unknown cause characterised by the formation of granulomas, most commonly affecting the lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes

"The young woman presented with erythema nodosum and bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy; a diagnosis of sarcoidosis was made after bronchoscopic biopsy confirmed non-caseating granulomas."

"lung compliance"

A measure of the ease with which the lungs can be expanded, expressed as the change in volume per unit change in pressure; reduced in fibrotic conditions and increased in emphysema

"In severe pulmonary fibrosis, markedly reduced lung compliance means patients must generate much greater inspiratory effort to achieve the same tidal volume."

"diffusing capacity"

A pulmonary function test, also called DLCO or transfer factor, that measures how efficiently oxygen moves from the alveoli into the bloodstream across the alveolar-capillary membrane

"A severely reduced diffusing capacity in a patient with connective tissue disease strongly suggests the presence of interstitial lung disease or pulmonary hypertension."

"cryptogenic organising pneumonia"

An idiopathic interstitial lung disease in which fibroblastic plugs fill the alveolar spaces and distal bronchioles, typically presenting with subacute onset of cough and breathlessness

"The patient with cryptogenic organising pneumonia responded dramatically to a course of oral corticosteroids, with near-complete resolution of the CT changes within eight weeks."

"pleural effusion"

An abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space between the two layers of the pleura surrounding the lungs

"The large right pleural effusion seen on the chest X-ray required thoracentesis to relieve the patient's breathlessness and to obtain fluid for diagnostic analysis."

"community-acquired pneumonia"

Pneumonia that develops in a patient who has not recently been hospitalised or in contact with a healthcare setting, most commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae

"The CURB-65 score was used to guide the decision to admit the patient with community-acquired pneumonia; a score of 3 indicated high severity requiring hospital treatment."

"consolidation"

Replacement of air in the alveoli with fluid, pus, blood, or other material, appearing as an opaque white area on chest X-ray or CT scan

"Right lower lobe consolidation on the chest X-ray, combined with fever and productive cough, was consistent with a diagnosis of lobar pneumonia."

"empyema"

An accumulation of pus in the pleural space, usually arising as a complication of pneumonia, requiring drainage and often surgical intervention

"The patient's pleural effusion progressed to an empyema after two weeks of inadequate antibiotic treatment, requiring insertion of a chest drain to clear the infected fluid."

"lung abscess"

A localised collection of pus within the lung parenchyma caused by microbial infection, appearing on imaging as a cavity with an air-fluid level

"The lung abscess in the elderly patient with poor dentition was caused by aspiration of oral anaerobic bacteria during an episode of reduced consciousness."

"tuberculosis"

An infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs, spreading through airborne droplets and capable of remaining latent for years before reactivating

"Reactivation tuberculosis was suspected when the immunosuppressed patient developed upper lobe cavitation, night sweats, and a positive interferon-gamma release assay."

"ventilator-associated pneumonia"

Pneumonia that develops more than 48 hours after endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation, caused by aspiration of microorganisms from the oropharynx

"Strict oral hygiene protocols and daily sedation breaks were introduced in the ICU to reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia."

"pneumocystis pneumonia"

A serious fungal pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii that almost exclusively affects immunocompromised patients, particularly those with HIV and low CD4 counts

"The HIV-positive patient with a CD4 count of 60 cells/μL presented with progressive dyspnoea on exertion and bilateral interstitial infiltrates typical of pneumocystis pneumonia."

"atypical pneumonia"

Pneumonia caused by organisms such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella, or Chlamydophila that do not respond to standard beta-lactam antibiotics and may present with extrapulmonary features

"The young university student with a two-week history of dry cough and low-grade fever tested positive for Mycoplasma pneumoniae, confirming a diagnosis of atypical pneumonia."

"non-small cell lung cancer"

The most common type of lung cancer, accounting for about 85% of cases, including adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and large cell carcinoma subtypes

"Molecular profiling of the non-small cell lung cancer biopsy revealed an EGFR exon 19 deletion, making the patient eligible for first-line targeted therapy with an EGFR inhibitor."

"small cell lung cancer"

An aggressive neuroendocrine malignancy of the lung that grows rapidly, almost always has distant metastases at presentation, and is strongly associated with tobacco smoking

"Small cell lung cancer was initially very sensitive to platinum-based chemotherapy, but the disease recurred within six months and was resistant to further treatment."

"solitary pulmonary nodule"

A single, rounded opacity in the lung parenchyma measuring up to 3 cm in diameter, which may be benign or malignant and requires risk-stratified follow-up or biopsy

"The 8 mm solitary pulmonary nodule found incidentally on the CT chest was managed according to the Fleischner Society guidelines, with a repeat CT scan at 12 months."

"mediastinal staging"

The process of evaluating whether lung cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the mediastinum, using PET-CT, endobronchial ultrasound, or mediastinoscopy

"Mediastinal staging with endobronchial ultrasound-guided sampling of the paratracheal nodes showed no evidence of malignant involvement, confirming resectable stage IIA disease."

"endobronchial ultrasound"

A bronchoscopic technique that uses an ultrasound probe at the tip of the bronchoscope to visualise and take needle biopsies of mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes

"Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration provided adequate tissue for both histological diagnosis and molecular profiling without the need for a surgical procedure."

"immune checkpoint inhibitor"

A class of immunotherapy drugs that block inhibitory proteins on T cells or tumour cells, such as PD-1, PD-L1, or CTLA-4, to enhance the immune response against cancer

"The patient with high PD-L1 expression received first-line pembrolizumab, an immune checkpoint inhibitor, as monotherapy and achieved a durable partial response for over two years."

"malignant mesothelioma"

A rare and aggressive cancer arising from the mesothelial cells lining the pleura, caused in the vast majority of cases by previous asbestos exposure with a latency of 30–50 years

"The retired shipyard worker was diagnosed with malignant mesothelioma 45 years after his occupational asbestos exposure, presenting with a large unilateral pleural effusion and pleural thickening."

"TNM staging"

The international system for classifying the extent of lung cancer based on Tumour size and invasion (T), regional lymph Node involvement (N), and distant Metastasis (M)

"TNM staging placed the patient at stage IIIA, reflecting a T2 primary tumour with ipsilateral mediastinal lymph node involvement but no distant metastases."

"spirometry"

A pulmonary function test that measures the volume and speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled, used to diagnose and monitor obstructive and restrictive lung diseases

"Pre- and post-bronchodilator spirometry showed a 15% and 300 mL improvement in FEV1 after salbutamol, confirming significant reversibility consistent with asthma."

"FEV1/FVC ratio"

The ratio of the forced expiratory volume in one second to the forced vital capacity, the primary spirometric measure used to distinguish obstructive from restrictive defects

"An FEV1/FVC ratio below 0.70 confirmed the presence of airflow obstruction, and the degree of FEV1 reduction was used to classify the severity of the COPD."

"arterial blood gas"

A blood test performed on a sample taken from an artery, measuring the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, pH, and bicarbonate level to assess respiratory and metabolic status

"The arterial blood gas in the acutely breathless patient revealed type 2 respiratory failure with a pH of 7.28 and a pCO2 of 8.5 kPa, indicating urgent need for ventilatory support."

"hypoxaemia"

Abnormally low levels of oxygen in the arterial blood, defined as a partial pressure of oxygen below 8 kPa or an oxygen saturation below 94% on room air

"Persistent hypoxaemia despite high-flow oxygen in the patient with acute respiratory distress syndrome prompted transfer to the intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation."

"pulmonary hypertension"

Elevated blood pressure in the pulmonary arterial circulation, defined as a mean pulmonary arterial pressure exceeding 20 mmHg at rest, leading to right heart strain and failure

"Echocardiography suggested pulmonary hypertension with a tricuspid regurgitation jet velocity of 3.6 m/s, and right heart catheterisation confirmed the diagnosis."

"non-invasive ventilation"

Mechanical ventilatory support delivered through a tight-fitting mask rather than an endotracheal tube, used to treat respiratory failure without the risks of intubation

"Non-invasive ventilation with bilevel positive airway pressure reversed the acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in the COPD patient, avoiding the need for intubation and ICU admission."

"acute respiratory distress syndrome"

A life-threatening form of respiratory failure characterised by acute onset, bilateral pulmonary infiltrates, severe hypoxaemia, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, with a mortality rate of 30–40%

"The patient developed acute respiratory distress syndrome following septic shock, requiring prone positioning and lung-protective ventilation with low tidal volumes to improve oxygenation."

"pulmonary embolism"

Blockage of one or more pulmonary arteries by a blood clot, most often arising from a deep vein thrombosis in the legs, causing sudden breathlessness, chest pain, and haemoptysis

"CT pulmonary angiography confirmed a saddle pulmonary embolism straddling the main pulmonary artery bifurcation, and the haemodynamically unstable patient was treated with systemic thrombolysis."