Английский для медсестёр-диабетологов: ключевые термины и фразы

"fasting plasma glucose"

Blood glucose level measured after at least 8 hours of no caloric intake; ≥ 7.0 mmol/L indicates diabetes.

"The patient's fasting plasma glucose was 8.2 mmol/L on two separate occasions, confirming a new diagnosis of type 2 diabetes."

"HbA1c"

Glycated haemoglobin; a blood test reflecting average blood glucose over the previous 2–3 months.

"Her HbA1c had risen to 9.1%, so the team adjusted her insulin regimen and reinforced dietary education."

"impaired glucose tolerance"

A pre-diabetic state in which blood glucose is higher than normal after a glucose load but not high enough for a diabetes diagnosis.

"The OGTT revealed impaired glucose tolerance, prompting referral to a lifestyle intervention programme."

"oral glucose tolerance test"

A diagnostic test in which the patient drinks 75 g of glucose and blood glucose is measured at 2 hours.

"We scheduled an oral glucose tolerance test to rule out gestational diabetes in this 28-week pregnant patient."

"latent autoimmune diabetes in adults"

A slowly progressing form of autoimmune diabetes in adults that is often initially misdiagnosed as type 2.

"Positive GAD antibodies confirmed latent autoimmune diabetes in adults, and insulin therapy was initiated."

"C-peptide level"

A marker of endogenous insulin production used to differentiate type 1 from type 2 diabetes and assess residual beta-cell function.

"A low C-peptide level supported the diagnosis of complete insulin deficiency in this long-standing type 1 patient."

"glycaemic target"

The individualised blood glucose or HbA1c goal set for a patient based on age, comorbidities, and risk of hypoglycaemia.

"For this elderly patient with frequent hypoglycaemia, we agreed on a less stringent glycaemic target of HbA1c below 8%."

"diabetes remission"

A sustained return of HbA1c to below 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) for at least 3 months without glucose-lowering medication.

"Following significant weight loss after bariatric surgery, the patient achieved diabetes remission confirmed at 6-month follow-up."

"basal-bolus regimen"

An insulin regimen combining long-acting basal insulin for background glucose control with rapid-acting bolus doses at mealtimes.

"Switching to a basal-bolus regimen gave the patient much better post-meal control and reduced overnight hypoglycaemia."

"carbohydrate-to-insulin ratio"

The number of grams of carbohydrate covered by one unit of rapid-acting insulin; used to calculate mealtime doses.

"We calculated a carbohydrate-to-insulin ratio of 1:10 for breakfast, meaning one unit for every 10 g of carbohydrate consumed."

"correction factor"

The amount by which one unit of insulin is expected to lower blood glucose; used to correct hyperglycaemia before meals.

"Using her correction factor, the nurse calculated an additional 2 units to bring the pre-meal glucose of 12 mmol/L back to target."

"insulin pen device"

A prefilled or refillable injection device used for self-administration of insulin, available in standard and smart versions.

"The patient demonstrated competent use of her insulin pen device, including correct needle attachment and disposal."

"continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion"

Insulin delivery through a programmable pump that infuses rapid-acting insulin continuously via a subcutaneous cannula.

"Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion improved her time-in-range significantly compared with multiple daily injections."

"dawn phenomenon"

A rise in blood glucose in the early morning hours caused by growth hormone and cortisol surges overnight.

"His consistently elevated fasting readings were attributed to the dawn phenomenon, managed by adjusting his basal rate between 3 and 6 a.m."

"lipohypertrophy"

Fatty lumps that form under the skin at insulin injection sites due to repeated injections in the same area.

"Palpation revealed extensive lipohypertrophy at the abdomen; the patient was counselled to rotate injection sites regularly."

"insulin titration"

The systematic adjustment of insulin doses based on blood glucose patterns to achieve individualised glycaemic targets.

"Using a structured titration protocol, the nurse increased the basal insulin by 2 units every 3 days until fasting targets were met."

"continuous glucose monitoring"

A wearable sensor-based system that measures interstitial glucose levels automatically every few minutes and displays trends.

"Continuous glucose monitoring revealed frequent nocturnal hypoglycaemia that the patient had been unaware of."

"time in range"

The percentage of sensor glucose readings within a target range (typically 3.9–10.0 mmol/L) over a defined period.

"Her time in range improved from 52% to 74% after initiating a closed-loop insulin delivery system."

"glucose variability"

The degree of fluctuation in blood glucose levels over time, including both low and high excursions, beyond average glucose alone.

"Despite an acceptable HbA1c, high glucose variability was identified on sensor download, increasing her cardiovascular risk."

"ambulatory glucose profile"

A standardised visual report of continuous glucose monitoring data displaying daily glucose patterns, time in range, and variability metrics.

"Reviewing the ambulatory glucose profile together helped the patient understand why her post-dinner readings consistently spiked."

"flash glucose monitoring"

An intermittently scanned CGM system in which the user waves a reader over a sensor to obtain a current glucose reading and 8-hour trend.

"Flash glucose monitoring reduced the need for finger-prick tests and improved the patient's engagement with self-management."

"hypoglycaemia unawareness"

A condition in which the patient no longer experiences warning symptoms of low blood glucose, increasing the risk of severe episodes.

"Hypoglycaemia unawareness was confirmed with a structured assessment; real-time CGM with alerts was recommended."

"sensor glucose"

The glucose reading provided by a continuous glucose monitor, measured in the interstitial fluid and may lag behind blood glucose by a few minutes.

"The sensor glucose read 4.2 mmol/L with a falling arrow, so the nurse advised treatment before symptoms developed."

"time below range"

The percentage of CGM readings below 3.9 mmol/L, used to quantify hypoglycaemia burden in clinical targets.

"Achieving a time below range of less than 4% was prioritised before focusing on reducing time above range."

"diabetic ketoacidosis"

A life-threatening acute complication caused by insulin deficiency, resulting in hyperglycaemia, ketonaemia, and metabolic acidosis.

"The patient presented with vomiting and a blood ketone of 4.8 mmol/L, meeting criteria for diabetic ketoacidosis."

"hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state"

A serious acute complication of type 2 diabetes characterised by extreme hyperglycaemia and severe dehydration without significant ketosis.

"The elderly patient's glucose of 48 mmol/L and altered consciousness indicated hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state requiring urgent IV fluid resuscitation."

"peripheral neuropathy"

Nerve damage affecting the feet and legs, causing pain, numbness, tingling, or loss of protective sensation in people with diabetes.

"Monofilament testing confirmed loss of protective sensation bilaterally, consistent with established peripheral neuropathy."

"diabetic nephropathy"

Chronic kidney disease caused by long-standing hyperglycaemia, characterised by progressive proteinuria and declining GFR.

"Rising ACR and falling eGFR over three years confirmed progressive diabetic nephropathy, prompting referral to renal services."

"proliferative diabetic retinopathy"

An advanced stage of diabetic eye disease in which abnormal new blood vessels grow on the retina, risking vision-threatening haemorrhage.

"Retinal screening identified proliferative diabetic retinopathy in the left eye, and the patient was urgently referred for laser treatment."

"Charcot arthropathy"

A progressive, destructive joint condition affecting the foot and ankle, caused by neuropathy and often misdiagnosed as infection or gout.

"The warm, swollen, but painless foot in the context of severe neuropathy raised suspicion for Charcot arthropathy rather than cellulitis."

"severe hypoglycaemia"

A hypoglycaemic episode severe enough to require assistance from another person for recovery, often involving loss of consciousness.

"The patient had experienced three episodes of severe hypoglycaemia in the past month, requiring glucagon administration by family members."

"diabetic foot ulcer"

An open wound on the foot resulting from neuropathy, ischaemia, or both, that carries a high risk of infection and amputation if not treated promptly.

"The Wagner Grade 2 diabetic foot ulcer on the plantar surface required debridement, offloading, and twice-weekly wound reviews."

"metformin"

The first-line oral glucose-lowering agent for type 2 diabetes that reduces hepatic glucose production and improves insulin sensitivity.

"Metformin was started at a low dose and titrated up gradually to minimise gastrointestinal side effects."

"GLP-1 receptor agonist"

A class of injectable or oral medications that stimulate insulin secretion, suppress glucagon, slow gastric emptying, and reduce appetite.

"The addition of a weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist led to significant weight loss and HbA1c reduction in this obese patient with type 2 diabetes."

"SGLT-2 inhibitor"

A class of oral agents that lower blood glucose by blocking glucose reabsorption in the kidney, also providing cardiovascular and renal protection.

"An SGLT-2 inhibitor was added to the regimen given the patient's established heart failure and need for cardiorenal protection."

"DPP-4 inhibitor"

A class of oral medications that prolong the action of incretin hormones to stimulate insulin release and suppress glucagon without causing weight gain.

"A DPP-4 inhibitor was chosen for this frail elderly patient because of its low hypoglycaemia risk and neutral weight effect."

"sulphonylurea"

An older class of oral agents that stimulate pancreatic beta-cells to secrete more insulin, carrying a risk of hypoglycaemia and weight gain.

"The patient was counselled about the hypoglycaemia risk when her sulphonylurea dose was increased."

"thiazolidinedione"

A class of oral insulin sensitisers that act on PPAR-gamma receptors, associated with weight gain, fluid retention, and bone fracture risk.

"Thiazolidinedione therapy was avoided in this patient with osteoporosis and a history of ankle oedema."

"empagliflozin"

An SGLT-2 inhibitor with demonstrated cardiovascular and renal outcome benefits in patients with type 2 diabetes and established disease.

"Empagliflozin was initiated after the patient's recent myocardial infarction to reduce the risk of hospitalisation for heart failure."

"semaglutide"

A GLP-1 receptor agonist available in both weekly injectable and daily oral forms, shown to reduce HbA1c and body weight significantly.

"Weekly subcutaneous semaglutide reduced his HbA1c from 9.4% to 7.1% over six months alongside dietary changes."

"sick day rules"

Specific guidance on adjusting medications, increasing monitoring frequency, and maintaining hydration during illness to prevent acute complications.

"The nurse reviewed sick day rules and ensured the patient knew not to stop insulin even when unable to eat."

"carbohydrate counting"

A meal-planning method in which the patient estimates the grams of carbohydrate in each meal to calculate the appropriate insulin dose.

"After completing a structured education course on carbohydrate counting, the patient achieved much tighter post-meal glucose levels."

"diabetes distress"

Significant emotional burden and worry specifically related to living with diabetes, distinct from clinical depression.

"Screening with the PAID questionnaire identified high diabetes distress, leading to referral for psychological support."

"hypoglycaemia treatment protocol"

A standardised step-by-step approach to treating low blood glucose using fast-acting carbohydrates followed by a longer-acting snack.

"The nurse reinforced the hypoglycaemia treatment protocol: 15 g fast-acting carbohydrate, wait 15 minutes, recheck, and repeat if still below 4 mmol/L."

"structured diabetes education programme"

A group or individual course providing knowledge, skills, and psychological support to enable effective self-management of diabetes.

"Completing a structured diabetes education programme was associated with improved HbA1c and quality of life in newly diagnosed patients."

"foot care self-examination"

The daily inspection of feet by the patient for cuts, blisters, calluses, and signs of infection to prevent the development of diabetic foot complications.

"The diabetes nurse taught foot care self-examination using a mirror and emphasised reporting any changes to the team promptly."

"physical activity prescription"

An individualised exercise plan specifying type, intensity, frequency, and duration of activity tailored to a person with diabetes.

"The physical activity prescription recommended 150 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise weekly, avoiding prolonged sedentary periods."

"shared decision-making"

A collaborative process in which clinician and patient discuss options, values, and preferences together to reach an agreed management plan.

"Using shared decision-making, the nurse and patient agreed on a weekly GLP-1 injection rather than adding a fourth oral agent."