Английский для онкологии

"malignant transformation"

The process by which a normal cell acquires genetic changes that cause it to become cancerous and proliferate uncontrollably

"Chronic exposure to tobacco carcinogens can drive malignant transformation of bronchial epithelial cells over many years."

"oncogene"

A mutated or overexpressed gene that promotes uncontrolled cell division and contributes to cancer development

"Amplification of the HER2 oncogene is found in approximately 20% of breast cancers and guides targeted therapy selection."

"tumour suppressor gene"

A gene that normally inhibits cell division or promotes apoptosis; loss of function leads to uncontrolled growth

"Mutations in the TP53 tumour suppressor gene are among the most common alterations found across all cancer types."

"metastasis"

The spread of cancer cells from the primary tumour to distant organs or lymph nodes via blood or lymphatic vessels

"Imaging revealed metastasis to the liver and lungs, changing the management plan from curative to palliative intent."

"angiogenesis"

The formation of new blood vessels that supply a tumour with oxygen and nutrients, enabling its growth and spread

"Anti-angiogenic agents such as bevacizumab inhibit VEGF signalling to restrict tumour angiogenesis."

"apoptosis"

Programmed cell death; a mechanism that cancer cells frequently evade to sustain their survival

"Many chemotherapy drugs work by triggering apoptosis in rapidly dividing tumour cells."

"clonal expansion"

The proliferation of a single genetically altered cell into a large population of identical daughter cells forming a tumour

"Molecular profiling confirmed that the metastatic lesions arose through clonal expansion from the primary colorectal tumour."

"tumour microenvironment"

The complex cellular and non-cellular surroundings of a tumour, including immune cells, blood vessels, and connective tissue that influence tumour behaviour

"Immunosuppressive signals within the tumour microenvironment can render checkpoint inhibitors less effective."

"biopsy"

The removal of a tissue sample from the body for microscopic examination to determine whether cancer cells are present

"A CT-guided core needle biopsy of the lung mass was performed to confirm the diagnosis before initiating treatment."

"TNM staging"

An international system classifying cancer by tumour size (T), lymph node involvement (N), and distant metastasis (M)

"The tumour was classified as T3 N1 M0, placing it at stage IIIA, which guided the decision for concurrent chemoradiotherapy."

"histopathology"

Microscopic examination of diseased tissue to identify cancer type, grade, and cellular characteristics

"Histopathology of the resected specimen confirmed a moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma with clear surgical margins."

"immunohistochemistry"

A laboratory technique using antibodies to detect specific proteins in tissue sections, helping to classify tumour type and guide treatment

"Immunohistochemistry showing strong ER and PR positivity confirmed the diagnosis of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer."

"PET-CT scan"

A combined imaging technique using radioactive glucose uptake and computed tomography to detect metabolically active tumour tissue

"The PET-CT scan demonstrated increased FDG uptake in mediastinal lymph nodes, indicating nodal involvement not visible on CT alone."

"tumour marker"

A substance produced by cancer cells or the body in response to cancer, measured in blood or tissue as a diagnostic or monitoring tool

"A rising CA-125 tumour marker level after first-line chemotherapy suggested early biochemical recurrence of ovarian cancer."

"sentinel lymph node biopsy"

A surgical procedure to remove and examine the first lymph node(s) to which a tumour drains, to determine whether cancer has spread

"Sentinel lymph node biopsy showed no evidence of metastatic disease, sparing the patient a full axillary dissection."

"liquid biopsy"

A non-invasive test that detects circulating tumour DNA or cells in blood to diagnose, monitor, or detect resistance in cancer

"A liquid biopsy identified an EGFR T790M resistance mutation, prompting a switch to osimertinib."

"neoadjuvant therapy"

Treatment given before the main treatment, usually surgery, to shrink a tumour and improve the chance of complete resection

"Neoadjuvant chemotherapy reduced the tumour from 4 cm to 1.5 cm, enabling a breast-conserving procedure."

"adjuvant therapy"

Treatment given after primary therapy, such as surgery, to reduce the risk of cancer recurrence by eliminating residual disease

"Six months of adjuvant capecitabine were recommended to lower the risk of relapse following resection of the colon cancer."

"radiation therapy"

The use of high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells or shrink tumours, delivered externally or via internal implants

"Stereotactic body radiation therapy delivered five fractions to a pulmonary oligometastasis with minimal toxicity."

"targeted therapy"

Drugs that block specific molecular targets involved in cancer growth, causing less harm to normal cells than conventional chemotherapy

"The patient with an ALK rearrangement responded dramatically to targeted therapy with alectinib, achieving a complete radiological response."

"immunotherapy"

Treatment that stimulates or restores the immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells

"Pembrolizumab immunotherapy was initiated for metastatic melanoma expressing high PD-L1 levels."

"stem cell transplantation"

Replacement of diseased bone marrow with healthy stem cells, used in haematological malignancies after high-dose chemotherapy

"Autologous stem cell transplantation was recommended for the patient with relapsed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma."

"hormone therapy"

Treatment that reduces or blocks hormones that fuel certain cancers, particularly breast and prostate cancer

"Long-term hormone therapy with letrozole was prescribed for five years to suppress oestrogen in the postmenopausal patient."

"surgical resection"

The operative removal of a tumour and surrounding tissue with the goal of achieving clear margins

"A right hemicolectomy provided curative surgical resection with negative margins in the patient with stage II colon cancer."

"cytotoxic agent"

A drug that kills or damages cells, primarily targeting rapidly dividing cancer cells but also affecting normal tissues

"Cisplatin is a platinum-based cytotoxic agent commonly used in lung, bladder, and head and neck cancers."

"myelosuppression"

Reduction of bone marrow activity resulting in decreased production of blood cells, a common side effect of chemotherapy

"Severe myelosuppression after cycle two required a dose reduction and growth factor support with filgrastim."

"nadir"

The point at which blood cell counts reach their lowest level following chemotherapy, typically one to two weeks after treatment

"The patient was admitted with febrile neutropenia at the nadir, seven days after receiving CHOP chemotherapy."

"FOLFOX"

A chemotherapy regimen combining folinic acid, fluorouracil, and oxaliplatin used primarily in colorectal cancer

"The patient received twelve cycles of FOLFOX as adjuvant therapy following resection of a stage III colon cancer."

"chemotherapy cycle"

A recurring period of treatment followed by a rest phase allowing the body to recover before the next course

"Each chemotherapy cycle lasted three weeks, with infusion on day one followed by fourteen days of recovery."

"vesicant"

A chemotherapy drug that causes severe tissue damage and blistering if it leaks outside the vein during administration

"Doxorubicin is a vesicant, so the nurse checked the cannula site frequently during the infusion."

"platinum resistance"

The loss of a tumour's response to platinum-based chemotherapy agents, typically defined as relapse within six months

"The patient was classified as platinum resistant after relapsing five months after completing carboplatin-based first-line therapy."

"complete response"

The disappearance of all measurable evidence of cancer following treatment as assessed by imaging or clinical examination

"A complete response was confirmed on CT at the end of treatment, with no residual lymphadenopathy detected."

"palliative intent"

A treatment goal aimed at controlling symptoms and improving quality of life rather than curing the disease

"After extensive discussion, the team agreed that further chemotherapy would be with palliative intent given the widespread disease."

"cachexia"

A complex metabolic syndrome in advanced cancer characterised by progressive weight loss, muscle wasting, and fatigue

"The dietitian developed a nutritional support plan to address the patient's cancer cachexia and involuntary weight loss."

"breakthrough pain"

A sudden, transient exacerbation of pain that occurs despite a stable background analgesic regimen

"Short-acting oramorph was prescribed for breakthrough pain occurring two to three times daily between regular doses."

"antiemetic"

A drug used to prevent or treat nausea and vomiting, a common side effect of chemotherapy and radiotherapy

"Ondansetron and dexamethasone were given as antiemetic prophylaxis before each highly emetogenic chemotherapy cycle."

"granulocyte colony-stimulating factor"

A growth factor that stimulates the bone marrow to produce more neutrophils, used to prevent or treat chemotherapy-induced neutropenia

"Prophylactic granulocyte colony-stimulating factor was prescribed to reduce the risk of febrile neutropenia with the BEACOPP regimen."

"advance care planning"

A process of discussion and documentation of a patient's preferences for future medical care should they lose decision-making capacity

"The palliative care team facilitated advance care planning, documenting the patient's wish to avoid hospital admission at end of life."

"opioid rotation"

Switching from one opioid analgesic to another to improve pain control or reduce side effects

"Opioid rotation from morphine to oxycodone was undertaken due to intractable nausea and myoclonus at the required dose."

"performance status"

A standardised score describing a patient's level of function and ability to tolerate treatment, often assessed using the ECOG or Karnofsky scale

"The patient's ECOG performance status had deteriorated to 3, making aggressive chemotherapy inappropriate."

"phase III trial"

A large randomised controlled study comparing a new treatment with the current standard of care to establish efficacy and safety

"The phase III trial enrolled 850 patients and demonstrated a significant improvement in overall survival with the experimental regimen."

"randomisation"

The random allocation of participants to treatment groups in a clinical trial to eliminate bias and ensure comparable groups

"Randomisation was stratified by disease stage and ECOG performance status to balance the treatment arms."

"overall survival"

The length of time from randomisation or treatment start to death from any cause, a primary endpoint in many oncology trials

"The primary endpoint of overall survival was met, with a median of 18.6 months in the experimental arm versus 13.4 months in the control arm."

"progression-free survival"

The length of time during and after treatment during which a patient lives without cancer worsening or spreading

"Progression-free survival was significantly improved with the addition of bevacizumab, with a median of 10.4 versus 7.1 months."

"RECIST criteria"

Standardised guidelines for measuring tumour response to treatment on imaging, defining complete response, partial response, stable disease, and progression

"According to RECIST criteria, the patient achieved a partial response with a 35% reduction in the sum of target lesion diameters."

"biomarker-driven trial"

A clinical study in which eligibility or treatment allocation is determined by the presence of a specific molecular or genetic marker

"Enrolment in the biomarker-driven trial required confirmed BRAF V600E mutation identified by tumour molecular profiling."

"informed consent"

The process by which a patient voluntarily agrees to participate in a trial after receiving full information about its risks and benefits

"The research nurse spent forty minutes reviewing the protocol with the patient before obtaining written informed consent."

"compassionate use"

A pathway allowing patients with serious conditions to access investigational treatments outside of a clinical trial when no other options remain

"The oncologist applied for compassionate use access to the experimental CAR-T therapy for the heavily pre-treated patient."