上級英語（C1–C2）：48の構造・イディオム・ニュアンス

"Subjunctive mood"

Verb form expressing hypothesis, wish, or demand — e.g. "It is essential that he be present."

""The committee insisted that the report be submitted by Friday.""

"Inversion for emphasis"

Subject-verb order reversed after a negative adverbial for dramatic stress.

""Not only did she win the award, but she also gave a remarkable speech.""

"Cleft sentences"

It-cleft or wh-cleft structures that focus on one element of a clause.

""It was the CEO who made the final decision, not the board.""

"Ellipsis & substitution"

Omitting or replacing words already understood from context to avoid repetition.

""She can play the violin, and so can her brother." (substitution with "so")"

"Nominal relative clauses"

A wh-clause functioning as a noun phrase, subject, or object.

""What he said in the meeting surprised everyone in the room.""

"Advanced conditionals"

Mixed, inverted, and implied conditionals beyond the standard four types.

""Were he to resign, the whole project would be in jeopardy.""

"Fronting for cohesion"

Moving a phrase to the start of a sentence for topic continuity or contrast.

""The results we had hoped for — those we never received.""

"Reduced relative clauses"

Relative clauses shortened by removing relative pronoun and auxiliary verb.

""The documents found in the archive date back to the 17th century.""

"Quintessential"

Representing the most perfect or typical example of a quality or class.

""This novel is the quintessential example of postmodern fiction.""

"Nuanced"

Marked by subtle distinctions that require careful attention to perceive.

""Her nuanced interpretation of the data challenged the prevailing consensus.""

"Ostensibly"

Apparently or purportedly, though perhaps not actually so.

""The policy was ostensibly designed to help small businesses, but critics disagreed.""

"Mitigate"

To lessen the severity, seriousness, or painfulness of something.

""The new safety protocols were implemented to mitigate the risk of accidents.""

"Ubiquitous"

Present, appearing, or found everywhere simultaneously.

""Smartphones have become ubiquitous in modern daily life across all demographics.""

"Preclude"

To prevent something from happening or make something impossible.

""Her prior commitments precluded her from attending the conference in Berlin.""

"Paradoxically"

In a way that seems contradictory or absurd but may express a possible truth.

""Paradoxically, working fewer hours actually increased the team's productivity.""

"Inextricably linked"

Connected in a way that is impossible to separate or disentangle.

""Economic development and environmental sustainability are inextricably linked.""

"The elephant in the room"

An obvious problem or controversial issue that everyone is aware of but avoids discussing.

""No one mentioned the declining sales figures — it was truly the elephant in the room.""

"To read between the lines"

To understand the hidden or implied meaning beyond what is literally stated.

""Reading between the lines, it was clear the director was unhappy with the proposal.""

"A double-edged sword"

Something that has both advantageous and disadvantageous consequences.

""Social media is a double-edged sword — it connects people but also spreads misinformation.""

"To throw caution to the wind"

To take a risk by ignoring usual caution or prudence.

""She threw caution to the wind and quit her stable job to start her own company.""

"On the cusp of"

At the point just before something significant happens or changes.

""The research team is on the cusp of a breakthrough that could revolutionise medicine.""

"To leave no stone unturned"

To do everything possible to achieve a result or find something.

""The detective left no stone unturned in her investigation of the mysterious disappearance.""

"A slippery slope"

A course of action likely to lead to something bad through a series of small steps.

""Allowing minor exceptions could be a slippery slope toward abandoning the entire policy.""

"The tip of the iceberg"

A small, visible part of a much larger, mostly hidden problem.

""The corruption scandal that emerged was just the tip of the iceberg.""

"Reach a consensus"

To arrive at an agreement accepted by all parties after discussion.

""After three hours of negotiation, the committee finally reached a consensus on the proposal.""

"Bear the brunt of"

To endure the worst part of something unpleasant or damaging.

""Coastal communities bore the brunt of the devastating storm surge last autumn.""

"Raise awareness"

To increase people's knowledge or understanding of an issue.

""The campaign was specifically designed to raise awareness about mental health in workplaces.""

"Draw a distinction"

To identify and emphasise a difference between two concepts or things.

""It is important to draw a distinction between correlation and causation in research.""

"Pose a challenge"

To present or create a difficult problem or obstacle that must be addressed.

""Rapid urbanisation poses a significant challenge for sustainable infrastructure planning.""

"Tackle an issue"

To deal with a problem or difficult matter in a determined and organised way.

""The government pledged to tackle the issue of housing affordability within five years.""

"Forge a path"

To create a new way forward through determination and innovation.

""She forged a path in the male-dominated industry through persistence and brilliance.""

"Shed light on"

To clarify or provide new information that helps explain a topic.

""The newly discovered documents shed light on the true causes of the ancient conflict.""

"Hedging language"

Phrases that soften claims or indicate degrees of certainty to avoid overstatement.

""The findings suggest that further research may be warranted in this particular area.""

"Passive voice for objectivity"

Using passive constructions to distance the writer from actions or to foreground results.

""The experiment was conducted under strictly controlled laboratory conditions over six weeks.""

"Nominalization"

Converting verbs or adjectives into noun phrases for a formal, dense prose style.

""The implementation of these measures led to a significant reduction in error rates.""

"Rhetorical questions"

Questions posed for persuasive effect, not to elicit an actual answer.

""Is it not time we reconsidered our approach to urban planning? The evidence demands it.""

"Anaphora for emphasis"

Repetition of a word or phrase at the start of successive clauses for rhythmic impact.

""We must act now. We must act boldly. We must act together to address this crisis.""

"Formal discourse markers"

Connective phrases that signal logical relationships in formal written or spoken English.

""Notwithstanding the above, it would be premature to dismiss the committee's concerns entirely.""

"Euphemistic language"

Mild or indirect expressions used instead of blunt ones to soften impact.

""The company announced a 'restructuring initiative' that resulted in significant workforce reductions.""

"Impersonal constructions"

Structures that avoid attributing an action to a specific person to maintain objectivity.

""It has been noted that attendance at the quarterly reviews has declined significantly.""

"Implicature"

Meaning that is implied rather than literally stated, relying on shared context.

""When asked if she liked the presentation, she said, 'You certainly put a lot of effort in.'""

"Face-saving language"

Expressions that protect the listener's dignity and self-esteem during sensitive interactions.

""I may be wrong about this, but I wonder if we've considered all the alternatives available.""

"Irony and understatement"

Saying less than what is meant, or the opposite, for humour or emphasis.

""After the car broke down on the motorway in the rain, he called it 'not ideal'.""

"Turn-taking signals"

Verbal and paralinguistic cues that manage who speaks next in conversation.

""And that brings me to my next point..." (signals continuation before yielding the floor)"

"Presupposition"

An implicit assumption embedded in an utterance that the speaker takes for granted.

""Have you stopped making these errors?" (presupposes you were making them before)"

"Indirect speech acts"

Utterances where the literal meaning differs from the intended communicative function.

""It's rather cold in here, isn't it?" (indirect request to close the window)"

"Cultural allusions"

References to shared cultural knowledge that create in-group understanding and depth.

""The project turned into a real Pandora's box — problems we never anticipated kept emerging.""

"Register switching"

Shifting consciously between formal, informal, and technical language depending on context.

""In the meeting she was precise and formal; afterwards, chatting in the corridor, completely relaxed.""