上級法律英語：専門的な法律語彙集

"judicial review"

The power of a court to examine the actions of the executive and legislative branches and declare them unlawful or unconstitutional if they exceed their legal authority

"The NGO applied for judicial review of the minister's decision to grant planning permission, arguing it was irrational and failed to consider the environmental impact assessment."

"proportionality"

A constitutional principle requiring that restrictions on fundamental rights be no greater than necessary to achieve a legitimate aim, used extensively in human rights adjudication

"The court found that the blanket ban on protest near Parliament failed the proportionality test because less restrictive alternatives were available that would achieve the same security objective."

"ultra vires"

A Latin term meaning "beyond the powers" — describing an act or decision that exceeds the legal authority granted to the body that made it

"The regulations were quashed as ultra vires because the enabling statute conferred no power on the minister to impose criminal penalties without primary legislation."

"separation of powers"

The constitutional doctrine dividing state authority among the legislature, executive, and judiciary to prevent any single branch from accumulating excessive power

"The constitutional court invoked the separation of powers doctrine to strike down the executive decree that sought to override a binding judicial order without legislative authority."

"derogation"

A formal suspension of certain human rights obligations permitted under international and regional human rights treaties during a genuine public emergency that threatens the life of the nation

"The government filed a notice of derogation with the Council of Europe, seeking to suspend certain Article 5 rights during the period of heightened national security threat."

"legitimate expectation"

A public law doctrine protecting individuals who have a reasonable expectation, based on a public body's representation or past practice, that a particular procedure will be followed or benefit will continue

"The university students successfully argued legitimate expectation after the admissions office had assured them in writing that their conditional offers would be honoured under the revised grading criteria."

"constitutional convention"

An unwritten but binding rule of political practice that constrains how constitutional powers are exercised, enforced by political rather than legal sanctions

"The prime minister's refusal to resign after losing the vote of confidence was widely condemned as a violation of constitutional convention, even though no court could enforce compliance."

"standing (locus standi)"

The legal right of a party to bring an action before a court, requiring a sufficient connection to the matter and a legally recognisable interest to be protected

"The environmental campaign group was denied standing because the court held it could not demonstrate a direct legal interest in the outcome beyond the general concern of any citizen."

"CISG (Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods)"

A United Nations treaty providing a uniform international sales law that automatically applies to commercial contracts between parties from different signatory states unless expressly excluded

"The seller based in Germany and the buyer based in Japan were both in CISG states, so the convention governed the contract automatically until the parties inserted an English-law clause to disapply it."

"choice of law clause"

A contractual provision specifying which country's legal system will govern the interpretation and enforcement of the contract in the event of a dispute

"The choice of law clause designated New York law as the governing law, a common choice for international finance contracts given New York's well-developed body of commercial precedent."

"letter of credit"

A documentary payment mechanism in international trade in which a bank undertakes to pay the seller upon presentation of specified documents evidencing shipment, regardless of any dispute between buyer and seller

"The exporter insisted on an irrevocable confirmed letter of credit because the buyer's credit rating was unknown and payment had to be secured against the shipping documents before release of the goods."

"Incoterms"

Standard international trade terms published by the International Chamber of Commerce that define the division of costs, risks, and responsibilities between buyer and seller in relation to the delivery of goods

"The contract specified CIF Rotterdam under Incoterms 2020, meaning the seller was responsible for cost, insurance, and freight to the named port, with risk passing to the buyer on loading."

"sovereign immunity"

The principle of international law under which a sovereign state is immune from the civil jurisdiction of foreign courts, subject to important exceptions for commercial activities

"The claimant successfully argued that the state-owned oil company had waived sovereign immunity by submitting to English jurisdiction and arbitration in the underlying contract."

"governing law vs. jurisdiction clause"

The distinction between the law chosen to interpret a contract (governing law) and the court or tribunal chosen to resolve disputes about it (jurisdiction), which may differ from each other

"The loan agreement used New York governing law but submitted disputes to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts — a deliberate choice reflecting the parties' enforcement strategy."

"assignment of receivables"

The transfer of a creditor's right to receive future payments to a third party, commonly used in trade finance and securitisation to convert future income streams into immediate cash

"The exporter used assignment of receivables as a financing tool, selling its right to collect invoice payments to the factor at a discount in exchange for immediate working capital."

"hardship clause"

A contractual provision allowing renegotiation of terms when changed circumstances make performance excessively burdensome for one party, short of constituting force majeure

"The long-term supply agreement included a hardship clause permitting either party to seek renegotiation if a 25% shift in commodity prices fundamentally disrupted the economic balance of the contract."

"arbitration clause"

A contractual provision in which parties agree in advance to resolve future disputes through arbitration rather than through the courts, designating rules, seat, and language

"The parties included an ICC arbitration clause designating Paris as the seat, French law as the governing law, and English as the language of the proceedings."

"seat of arbitration"

The legal domicile of an arbitration, determining which national courts have supervisory jurisdiction and which national arbitration law governs the procedural framework

"Choosing London as the seat of arbitration gave the parties the benefit of the English Arbitration Act 1996 and access to the supportive supervision of the English Commercial Court."

"New York Convention"

The 1958 UN Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, which requires its 170+ contracting states to recognise and enforce arbitral awards made in other contracting states

"The creditor obtained an arbitral award in Singapore and then relied on the New York Convention to enforce it against the debtor's assets held in France and Germany."

"kompetenz-kompetenz"

The principle in international arbitration that the arbitral tribunal has the power to rule on its own jurisdiction, including objections to the validity or scope of the arbitration agreement

"The respondent challenged the tribunal's jurisdiction on the basis that the underlying contract was void, but the tribunal applied kompetenz-kompetenz to determine that question itself before proceeding to the merits."

"without prejudice"

A privilege protecting communications made in a genuine attempt to settle a dispute from being disclosed or used as evidence in court proceedings

"All settlement negotiations were conducted on a without prejudice basis, meaning neither side could refer to concessions made during mediation if the case later proceeded to trial."

"terms of reference"

A document in ICC and some other arbitrations that defines the parties' claims, relief sought, and procedural timetable, signed by the parties and the tribunal at the outset of proceedings

"The terms of reference confirmed the tribunal's jurisdiction, identified the three arbitrators, listed the main issues in dispute, and set out a provisional timetable for the exchange of memorials."

"award on the merits"

A final determination by an arbitral tribunal resolving the substantive claims in dispute, as distinct from procedural or jurisdictional orders

"After a 14-day evidentiary hearing and three rounds of post-hearing briefs, the tribunal issued its award on the merits, finding in favour of the claimant on the main contract claim but dismissing the counterclaim."

"emergency arbitrator"

A procedure available under most modern arbitration rules allowing a party to seek urgent interim relief from a specially appointed arbitrator before the full tribunal is constituted

"The claimant applied for an emergency arbitrator under the SIAC Rules within 24 hours of discovering that the respondent had begun transferring assets out of the jurisdiction in breach of the contract."

"recitals"

The introductory clauses in a contract or deed, beginning with "whereas", that describe the background, purpose, and context of the agreement without creating binding obligations

"The recitals explained that the vendor had operated the business for 20 years and that the purchaser wished to acquire it as a going concern, providing useful context for interpreting any ambiguous operative provisions."

"operative clause"

The substantive, legally binding provision of a contract or deed that creates rights, obligations, or transfers of property, as distinct from recitals or definitions

"The operative clause in the assignment deed stated that the assignor "hereby assigns absolutely" all its rights under the licence agreement, making the transfer immediate and unconditional."

"boilerplate"

Standard contractual clauses covering miscellaneous matters such as governing law, jurisdiction, entire agreement, notices, and waiver, typically placed at the end of a commercial contract

"Despite being dismissed as routine boilerplate by the junior associate, the no-waiver clause proved decisive when the court considered whether the client had waived its right to terminate for breach."

"covenant not to sue"

A provision in which one party agrees not to bring legal proceedings against another in relation to a specific matter, used in settlement agreements and releases

"As part of the settlement, the claimant executed a covenant not to sue in respect of all claims arising from the data breach incident, providing the defendant with certainty that the dispute was fully resolved."

"representations and warranties"

Factual statements and promises made by one party to a contract — particularly common in M&A agreements — on which the other party relies, with breach giving rise to a claim for damages

"The buyer's lawyers spent four weeks negotiating the representations and warranties schedule, seeking detailed assurances about the target company's financial condition, litigation exposure, and regulatory compliance."

"condition precedent"

A condition that must be satisfied before a contract or obligation becomes effective, with non-satisfaction typically allowing the other party to withdraw without liability

"The acquisition agreement was conditional on three conditions precedent: shareholder approval, competition authority clearance, and the key management team signing new employment contracts."

"severability clause"

A provision stating that if any part of the contract is found unenforceable, the remainder of the agreement continues in force, preventing the entire contract from failing due to one invalid provision

"When the non-compete restriction was held void as an unreasonable restraint of trade, the severability clause preserved the rest of the employment contract, including the confidentiality obligations."

"time is of the essence"

An express contractual term making compliance with time limits a condition of the contract, so that any failure to perform by the stipulated date entitles the other party to terminate

"Because time was of the essence for completion, the buyer's failure to transfer the purchase price by 2 pm on the agreed date gave the seller an immediate right to rescind the contract and retain the deposit."

"disclosure (discovery)"

The process by which parties to litigation are required to identify and produce documents and information relevant to the dispute, subject to claims of privilege and proportionality

"Standard disclosure required each party to produce all documents on which it relied and all documents that adversely affected its own case or supported the opponent's case."

"legal professional privilege"

An absolute right protecting confidential communications between a lawyer and client made for the purpose of obtaining legal advice, or in connection with actual or contemplated litigation, from disclosure

"The company resisted disclosure of its general counsel's internal memoranda on the basis of legal professional privilege, arguing the documents were prepared in anticipation of regulatory proceedings."

"without prejudice save as to costs"

A variant of without prejudice protection that allows a settlement offer to be shown to the court after judgment solely on the question of costs, incentivising reasonable settlement

"The defendant made a Calderbank offer on a without prejudice save as to costs basis, and when the claimant's damages award fell below that figure, the court ordered the claimant to pay costs from the date of the offer."

"expert witness"

A person with specialised knowledge in a field who is appointed by one or more parties to provide an objective opinion on a technical matter to assist the court, owing a primary duty to the court rather than the instructing party

"The claimant's expert witness — a former central bank governor — gave evidence that the defendant bank's risk management practices fell far below the standard expected of a reasonable institution in its position."

"hearsay evidence"

An out-of-court statement tendered for the truth of its contents; admissible in civil proceedings under statutory gateways but subject to strict limitations in criminal trials

"The prosecution sought to rely on a statement made by a deceased witness, and the judge had to rule on whether the hearsay evidence was admissible under the relevant statutory exception."

"Anton Piller order (search order)"

An ex parte court order permitting the applicant to enter the respondent's premises to search for, inspect, and seize evidence without prior notice, used where there is a risk evidence will be destroyed

"Fearing that the defendant would shred incriminating documents if given notice, the claimant applied without notice for a search order, supported by detailed affidavit evidence of the risk of destruction."

"Norwich Pharmacal order"

A court order requiring an innocent third party who has become mixed up in wrongdoing to disclose information or documents identifying the wrongdoer, even if they are not a defendant

"The victim of an online fraud applied for a Norwich Pharmacal order against the payment processor to obtain account information identifying the individuals who had received the stolen funds."

"Mareva injunction (freezing order)"

A court order preventing a defendant from disposing of or dealing with assets up to a specified value, typically granted urgently to prevent dissipation of assets before judgment

"As soon as the claimant discovered the defendant was liquidating its UK assets, it applied without notice for a Mareva injunction, obtaining a worldwide freezing order within 48 hours."

"administration"

An insolvency procedure in which an administrator is appointed to manage a company with the objectives of rescuing the business as a going concern, achieving a better outcome for creditors than liquidation, or realising property to pay secured creditors

"When the retailer could no longer service its debt, the secured lender appointed an administrator who continued trading for six weeks before securing a pre-pack sale of the business and assets."

"pari passu"

A Latin expression meaning "on an equal footing", used in insolvency and finance to describe creditors whose claims rank equally and will be satisfied proportionally from available assets

"All unsecured trade creditors ranked pari passu in the liquidation and received 12 pence in the pound once the preferential and secured creditors had been paid in full."

"cram-down"

A mechanism in restructuring proceedings allowing a restructuring plan to be imposed on dissenting classes of creditors or shareholders if the court is satisfied that no class is worse off than in the relevant alternative

"The company used the UK restructuring plan procedure to cram down a group of junior bondholders who had voted against the proposal but whose position was better than in an immediate administration."

"preference (voidable preference)"

A transaction entered into by an insolvent company that gives one creditor a better outcome than it would have received in a liquidation, which a liquidator can apply to set aside if the company acted with a desire to prefer

"The liquidator challenged as a voidable preference the payment of £500,000 to the director's sister shortly before the company filed for insolvency, arguing the directors deliberately favoured a connected party."

"wrongful trading"

A statutory liability in UK insolvency law under which a director who continued to trade after knowing (or ought to have known) that there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvency can be ordered to contribute to the company's assets

"The liquidator brought wrongful trading claims against three directors who had continued to incur credit from suppliers for seven months after the management accounts showed the company was insolvent."

"cross-border insolvency"

The coordination of insolvency proceedings across multiple jurisdictions when a debtor has assets, creditors, or operations in more than one country, often governed by the UNCITRAL Model Law

"The US bankruptcy court recognised the English administration as a "foreign main proceeding" under the Model Law, granting an automatic stay against creditor action in the United States."

"pre-pack administration"

A form of administration in which the sale of a business or assets is arranged and agreed before the appointment of the administrator, completing immediately on appointment

"The pre-pack administration allowed the profitable parts of the business to be sold to a new company owned by the existing management overnight, preserving 400 jobs while leaving unsecured creditors unpaid."

"scheme of arrangement"

A statutory procedure allowing a company to make a binding compromise with its creditors or members, approved by the relevant class and sanctioned by the court, used for restructuring debt without a full insolvency process

"The heavily indebted media group used a scheme of arrangement to convert £800 million of bonds into equity, with 78% creditor approval in the relevant class being sufficient to bind the dissenters."