法律英語：必須語彙とフレーズ

"indemnification clause"

A contractual provision in which one party agrees to compensate the other for specified losses, liabilities, or damages that may arise from the agreement.

"The vendor insisted on a broad indemnification clause protecting it from any third-party intellectual property claims arising from the software."

"force majeure"

A contract clause that excuses a party from performing its obligations when extraordinary events beyond its control — such as natural disasters or war — make performance impossible.

"The construction company invoked the force majeure clause after the government imposed a lockdown that halted all building work."

"liquidated damages"

A specific, pre-agreed sum that a contract stipulates will be paid as compensation if one party breaches a particular term, typically a deadline.

"The contract provided for liquidated damages of $10,000 per day for every day the project was delivered late."

"consideration"

Something of value exchanged between the parties to a contract — money, goods, services, or a promise — that makes the agreement legally binding.

"The court held that the agreement was unenforceable because there was no consideration provided by either party."

"representations and warranties"

Statements of fact made by one party to another at the time of contracting, on which the recipient may rely and for which the maker accepts legal responsibility.

"The seller gave representations and warranties that it held clear title to all assets being transferred under the sale agreement."

"entire agreement clause"

A provision stating that the written contract constitutes the complete and final agreement between the parties, superseding all prior negotiations, representations, and understandings.

"Thanks to the entire agreement clause, the buyer could not rely on informal assurances the salesperson had made during pre-contract negotiations."

"material breach"

A significant failure by one party to perform its contractual obligations that goes to the heart of the contract and entitles the innocent party to terminate and claim damages.

"Failure to deliver the goods by the contractual deadline was treated as a material breach, allowing the buyer to cancel the order."

"novation"

The substitution of a new party or obligation for an existing one in a contract, extinguishing the original obligation with the consent of all parties.

"When the agency was acquired, all client contracts were transferred to the acquirer by novation, replacing the seller as the service provider."

"discovery"

The pre-trial phase in civil litigation during which each party can obtain evidence from the opposing party and third parties through requests for documents, interrogatories, and depositions.

"During discovery, the plaintiff's legal team uncovered thousands of internal emails that contradicted the defendant's position."

"injunction"

A court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing a specific act, issued to prevent irreparable harm while the underlying dispute is resolved.

"The software company obtained an injunction preventing the former employee from using its confidential source code at a competitor."

"summary judgment"

A court ruling in favour of one party before trial on the grounds that there are no genuine issues of material fact and the moving party is entitled to win as a matter of law.

"The defendant moved for summary judgment, arguing that the plaintiff's claim was time-barred by the statute of limitations."

"burden of proof"

The obligation of a party to prove a disputed fact to the required legal standard — beyond reasonable doubt in criminal cases, or on the balance of probabilities in civil cases.

"In the fraud trial, the prosecution bore the burden of proof and had to establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt."

"deposition"

An out-of-court sworn oral testimony given by a witness that is recorded and may be used as evidence during trial or to challenge a witness's credibility.

"The former CFO's deposition lasted three days and became the centrepiece of the plaintiff's case."

"pleadings"

The formal written documents filed with the court by the parties at the start of litigation, setting out their respective claims and defences.

"The defendant filed an amended answer to the pleadings, adding a counterclaim for breach of warranty."

"class action"

A type of lawsuit in which one or more plaintiffs sue on behalf of a large group of people who share the same legal claim against the defendant.

"Thousands of consumers joined the class action against the pharmaceutical company, alleging that it had concealed known side effects."

"res judicata"

The legal doctrine that prevents the same parties from re-litigating a matter that has already been finally decided by a competent court.

"The second lawsuit was dismissed on the grounds of res judicata, as the same issue had already been determined in the earlier proceedings."

"articles of incorporation"

The primary document filed with the state or government authority to legally create a corporation, setting out its name, purpose, structure, and authorised share capital.

"Before issuing shares to investors, the founders amended the articles of incorporation to create a new class of preferred stock."

"fiduciary duty"

The legal obligation of a person in a position of trust — such as a company director or trustee — to act in the best interests of another party and avoid conflicts of interest.

"The board members were sued for breach of fiduciary duty after approving a related-party transaction at an inflated price."

"piercing the corporate veil"

A legal doctrine allowing courts to hold shareholders or directors personally liable for corporate debts or wrongdoing when the corporate form has been abused or used as a sham.

"The court agreed to pierce the corporate veil because the sole director had commingled personal and company funds to defraud creditors."

"minority shareholder oppression"

Conduct by majority shareholders or directors that is unfairly prejudicial to the interests of minority shareholders, giving rise to a right to seek a court remedy.

"The minority shareholders brought a petition alleging oppression after dividends were suspended while excessive salaries were paid to the majority owners."

"drag-along right"

A contractual right allowing majority shareholders to require minority shareholders to join in a sale of the company on the same terms, preventing minorities from blocking a deal.

"The investors exercised their drag-along right to ensure the acquisition could proceed without the dissenting co-founder's consent."

"tag-along right"

A contractual right allowing minority shareholders to join in a sale by a majority shareholder on the same terms, protecting them from being left behind in a change of control.

"Under the shareholders' agreement, any sale of shares by the founder triggered the investors' tag-along right to sell at the same price."

"ultra vires"

Latin for "beyond the powers": describes an act taken by a company or official that exceeds the authority granted by the constitution, articles, or statute.

"The subsidiary's decision to guarantee the parent company's debt was challenged as ultra vires because it was not authorised by the subsidiary's memorandum."

"golden parachute"

A contractual provision giving senior executives substantial financial benefits — severance pay, share options, or bonuses — if they are dismissed following a change of company control.

"The target company's golden parachute arrangements cost the acquirer an additional $40 million on top of the headline purchase price."

"prior art"

Any existing evidence — published documents, earlier patents, or publicly known products — that demonstrates an invention was already known before a patent application was filed, potentially defeating the patent claim.

"The patent examiner rejected the application because a Japanese academic paper published two years earlier constituted prior art for the claimed invention."

"trademark dilution"

The weakening of a famous trademark's distinctiveness or reputation through unauthorised use, even without consumer confusion, recognised as an infringement in many jurisdictions.

"The luxury brand sued a satirical clothing company for trademark dilution, arguing the parody products tarnished its prestigious image."

"fair use"

A legal doctrine in copyright law permitting limited, unlicensed use of copyrighted material for purposes such as criticism, commentary, news reporting, teaching, or research.

"The documentary filmmaker relied on fair use to include brief clips of copyrighted footage without obtaining licences from the studios."

"trade secret"

Confidential business information — a formula, process, customer list, or technique — that provides a competitive advantage and is protected by law from misappropriation as long as it remains secret.

"The company alleged that the departing engineer had stolen trade secrets by copying the manufacturing specifications before resigning."

"patent claim"

The legally operative part of a patent that defines the exact scope of the invention's protection, with independent claims establishing the broadest protection and dependent claims adding further details.

"The patent attorney carefully drafted the independent claims to be as broad as the prior art would allow, while adding dependent claims covering the preferred embodiment."

"licensing"

A contractual arrangement in which the owner of intellectual property (the licensor) grants another party (the licensee) permission to use the IP in exchange for royalties or other compensation.

"The university licensed its patented gene-editing technology exclusively to a biotech startup in exchange for milestone payments and a 5% royalty."

"moral rights"

Personal rights of authors to be attributed as the creator of their work and to object to modifications that would harm their honour or reputation, distinct from economic copyright rights.

"The sculptor successfully invoked his moral rights when the building owner attempted to paint over his commissioned mural without consent."

"cease and desist letter"

A formal written demand from one party to another to stop an allegedly unlawful activity immediately, typically sent as a precursor to litigation if the conduct does not stop.

"The publisher sent a cease and desist letter to the website demanding that it remove the pirated e-books within 48 hours or face legal action."

"constructive dismissal"

A situation in which an employer's conduct fundamentally and unilaterally breaches the employment contract to such a degree that the employee has no reasonable option but to resign, which is treated as dismissal in law.

"After the company cut her salary without consent and moved her to a meaningless role, she resigned and claimed constructive dismissal."

"restrictive covenant"

A post-employment clause in a contract that limits what a former employee can do — such as working for competitors or poaching clients — for a defined period and geographic area after leaving.

"The sales director was bound by a twelve-month non-solicitation restrictive covenant preventing her from approaching her former employer's clients."

"whistleblower protection"

Legal safeguards that protect employees from retaliation — dismissal, demotion, or harassment — when they report illegal activity, misconduct, or safety violations by their employer.

"The accountant who reported the fraud to regulators was shielded by whistleblower protection laws and later reinstated after his wrongful dismissal claim succeeded."

"vicarious liability"

A legal principle under which an employer is held responsible for the wrongful acts of an employee committed in the course of employment, even if the employer was not personally at fault.

"The hospital was held vicariously liable for the consultant surgeon's negligence, as the operation had been performed as part of his contracted duties."

"unfair dismissal"

The termination of an employment contract by an employer without a fair reason or without following a fair procedure, giving the employee the right to bring a claim before an employment tribunal.

"The employee brought an unfair dismissal claim after being fired by text message with no prior warnings or disciplinary process."

"TUPE (Transfer of Undertakings)"

Regulations (in the UK and similar frameworks elsewhere) that protect employees' terms and conditions when the business or service they work for is transferred to a new employer.

"Under TUPE, all 200 warehouse employees transferred to the new logistics provider on the same terms and conditions as before the outsourcing."

"reasonable adjustments"

Changes an employer is legally required to make to remove or reduce disadvantages faced by a disabled employee or job applicant, such as flexible hours, adapted equipment, or modified duties.

"The company made reasonable adjustments for the dyslexic employee, providing voice-recognition software and extra time to complete written reports."

"gross misconduct"

Employee behaviour so serious that it fundamentally undermines the employment relationship and justifies immediate dismissal without notice or a prior written warning.

"The bank teller's dishonesty in falsifying customer records was treated as gross misconduct and she was summarily dismissed the same day."

"without prejudice"

A legal term used on correspondence or in settlement negotiations to indicate that the communication cannot be used as evidence in court, encouraging candid settlement discussions.

"The solicitor labelled the settlement offer "without prejudice" so that if the negotiations broke down, the letter could not be used against the client at trial."

"inter partes"

Latin meaning "between the parties," describing proceedings or communications that involve and are binding on both sides of a dispute.

"The court issued an inter partes injunction after hearing submissions from both the claimant and the defendant at the hearing."

"legal opinion"

A formal written document prepared by a lawyer advising a client on how the law applies to a specific set of facts, often required by banks or investors to confirm the validity of a transaction.

"The lender required a legal opinion from local counsel confirming that the security documents were enforceable under the laws of the jurisdiction."

"estoppel"

A legal doctrine that prevents a party from taking a position in legal proceedings that is inconsistent with a previous position on which another party has relied to their detriment.

"The landlord was estopped from enforcing the strict rent-payment clause after years of accepting late payments without objection."

"hearsay"

An out-of-court statement offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted, generally inadmissible in common law courts unless it falls within a recognised exception.

"The judge excluded the witness's testimony about what a colleague had told her, ruling it was inadmissible hearsay."

"power of attorney"

A written legal instrument authorising one person (the agent or attorney-in-fact) to act on behalf of another (the principal) in legal and financial matters.

"When her father lost capacity, she registered a lasting power of attorney to manage his property and financial affairs."

"statute of limitations"

The time limit set by law within which a party must commence legal proceedings after a cause of action arises; claims filed after this period are time-barred.

"The personal injury claim was dismissed because the claimant had waited four years to sue, exceeding the three-year statute of limitations."

"affidavit"

A sworn written statement of facts made voluntarily and confirmed under oath or affirmation, used as evidence in legal proceedings.

"The witness submitted an affidavit to the court detailing the events she had observed on the night in question."