上級英語時制：完全C1–C2ガイド

"Present Perfect Simple"

Links a past action to now; result or experience matters more than the exact time.

"She has lived in three countries and speaks each language fluently."

"Present Perfect Continuous"

Stresses the ongoing or recent nature of an activity leading up to now.

"They have been negotiating the contract all morning and are close to a deal."

"Past Perfect Simple"

The "past of the past" — an action completed before another past event.

"By the time he arrived, the committee had already voted on the proposal."

"Past Perfect Continuous"

Emphasises duration of a past action that was in progress before a later past event.

"The engineers had been testing the prototype for six months when the funds ran out."

"Future Perfect Simple"

States that an action will be completed before a specific future moment.

"By this time next year, the research team will have published its findings."

"Future Perfect Continuous"

Highlights ongoing duration up to a specific future point.

"In March, she will have been teaching at the university for exactly twenty years."

"Perfect Infinitive (to have done)"

Used after modal verbs to speculate about or regret past actions.

"He must have forgotten the meeting; he would have called otherwise."

"Perfect Gerund (having done)"

Gerund form of the perfect aspect, used to signal that one action preceded another.

"Having reviewed all the data, the analyst prepared her final report."

"Historic Present"

Present tense used to narrate past events for dramatic effect and immediacy.

"So Napoleon looks at his generals and says, "We march at dawn.""

"Narrative Past Simple"

The default tense for sequential events in a story; backbone of narrative writing.

"She opened the envelope, read the letter twice, and set it down carefully on the desk."

"Past Continuous as Background"

Sets the scene or provides simultaneous background action while the main event occurs.

"Rain was hammering the windows when the detective finally knocked on the door."

"Past Perfect as Flashback"

Interrupts the main narrative timeline to describe earlier events.

"The house felt familiar; she had spent every childhood summer within its walls."

"Stative Verbs in Past Tense"

Verbs of state (know, believe, own) normally use simple — not continuous — past forms.

"He knew the answer before the moderator finished reading the question."

"Tense Shift for Effect"

A deliberate switch from past to present tense to pull the reader into a key scene.

"For three hours they waited. Then the door opens and everything changes."

"Present Perfect in News Headlines"

Headlines often use Present Perfect to link a just-completed event to the reader's present moment.

""Scientists have discovered a new exoplanet capable of supporting liquid water.""

"Future-in-the-Past (was going to / would)"

Describes a future event as seen from a past point in time.

"He was going to resign that Friday, but the promotion changed his mind completely."

"must have + past participle"

Logical deduction about a past event based on available evidence.

"The lights are still on; she must have forgotten to switch them off before leaving."

"can't have + past participle"

Strong logical deduction that something did NOT happen in the past.

"He can't have read the full report — he only had it for ten minutes."

"might/may have + past participle"

Speculative possibility about a past event; less certain than "must have".

"The file might have been corrupted during the transfer — please check the size."

"should have + past participle"

Criticism or regret about a past action that was expected but did not occur.

"The team should have tested the update on a staging server before going live."

"needn't have + past participle"

Something was done but was unnecessary in hindsight.

"You needn't have printed all two hundred pages; the summary would have been enough."

"would have + past participle"

The result or consequence in a third conditional or a polite past prediction.

"Without your help, the project would have stalled completely by October."

"could have + past participle"

An unrealised past possibility — something was possible but did not happen.

"She could have applied for the grant, but she missed the submission deadline."

"Modal + be + -ing (past)"

Combines a modal with the past continuous to speculate about ongoing past actions.

"They must have been working through the night to finish the prototype in time."

"Mixed Conditional (past → present)"

Past condition affecting a present state; mixes third and second conditional structures.

"If she had studied medicine, she would be a surgeon now — not a researcher."

"Mixed Conditional (present → past)"

Present condition explaining why a past outcome happened or did not happen.

"If he weren't so cautious, he would have invested in the company years ago."

"Inverted Conditional with Had"

Formal inversion replaces "if" with subject-auxiliary inversion in third conditionals.

"Had the negotiations succeeded, the merger would have been finalised last spring."

"Inverted Conditional with Were"

Formal inversion for second conditional hypotheticals; common in legal and academic English.

"Were the proposal to be rejected, we would need to seek alternative funding."

"Inverted Conditional with Should"

Used for unlikely or polite conditions; often appears in official correspondence.

"Should you require further clarification, please do not hesitate to contact us."

"Implied Conditional (without "if")"

The condition is embedded in the main clause through context, intonation, or a connecting word.

"A more experienced pilot would have avoided that turbulence zone entirely."

"Wish + Past Perfect"

Expresses regret about a past situation that cannot be changed.

"I wish I had saved a copy of the document before the system crashed."

"If only + Past Perfect"

Stronger, more emotional form of regret about an irreversible past event.

"If only the lab had run one more trial, the error might have been caught in time."

"Tense Backshift: Present → Past"

In reported speech, present tense typically shifts to past tense.

""I work in finance." → She said she worked in finance."

"Tense Backshift: Past → Past Perfect"

Past simple in direct speech shifts to past perfect when reported.

""We finished the audit." → They reported that they had finished the audit."

"Backshift: will → would"

"Will" shifts to "would" in indirect speech to maintain the original future meaning.

""I will send the report." → He promised that he would send the report."

"No Backshift: General Truths"

Tenses do not shift when reporting permanent facts or scientific laws.

"The professor explained that water boils at 100°C at sea level."

"No Backshift: Still True Now"

If the reported statement is still true, backshift is optional.

"She mentioned that she lives near the airport — and she still does."

"Reporting Verbs with Infinitive"

Many reporting verbs (agree, refuse, promise) take a to-infinitive, not a that-clause.

"The management agreed to review the salary structure in the next quarter."

"Reporting Verbs with Gerund"

Some reporting verbs (admit, deny, suggest) take a gerund, not an infinitive.

"The suspect denied taking the documents from the confidential folder."

"Reported Questions"

Question word order reverts to statement order; auxiliary "do/did" is dropped.

""Where did you find the data?" → She asked where I had found the data."

"Simple Present for Established Facts"

Academic writing uses simple present to state theories, definitions, and enduring truths.

"The study demonstrates that early intervention significantly reduces long-term costs."

"Past Simple for Completed Research"

Describing the methodology and findings of a specific completed study uses past simple.

"The researchers administered the questionnaire to 400 participants over six weeks."

"Present Perfect to Review Literature"

Connecting past research to the current scholarly conversation uses present perfect.

"Several studies have examined the link between sleep deprivation and cognitive decline."

"Passive Voice + Tense Combination"

Academic writing frequently combines passive voice with varied tenses to maintain objectivity.

"The samples were collected in January and have since been analysed in triplicate."

"Hedging with Modals"

Writers use modals (may, might, could, should) to make claims cautious and defensible.

"These results may suggest a correlation, though further replication would be required."

"Future Simple in Proposals"

Research proposals and abstracts use "will" to outline planned methodology.

"This study will investigate the effects of microplastics on freshwater invertebrates."

"Subjunctive in Formal Recommendations"

Formal writing uses the base subjunctive in that-clauses after verbs like recommend and suggest.

"The committee recommends that all data be archived within thirty days of collection."

"Stative Passives vs Action Passives"

Stative passives (is known, is considered) use present simple; action passives use the full passive.

"The compound is considered hazardous; therefore it was stored in a sealed cabinet."