中級英語ガイド：B1–B2の壁を突破する

"present perfect vs. past simple"

Use the present perfect for experiences or recent actions connected to now; use past simple for finished events at a specific time.

"I've visited Tokyo three times" (experience) vs. "I visited Tokyo in 2019" (specific time).

"third conditional"

Used to talk about hypothetical past situations and their imagined results. Structure: If + had + past participle, would have + past participle.

"If she had studied harder, she would have passed the exam."

"reported speech"

Telling someone what another person said, shifting tenses back one step and changing pronouns and time expressions.

"She said she was tired" (reported from "I am tired").

"passive voice"

Used when the focus is on the action or the object receiving the action, rather than who performed it.

"The new policy was announced yesterday" emphasises the policy, not who announced it.

"relative clauses"

Clauses that give more information about a noun. Defining clauses identify which one; non-defining clauses add extra information.

"The book that I recommended won the prize" (defining) vs. "My sister, who lives in Paris, is visiting."

"modal verbs for deduction"

Must, might, could, and can't used to express how certain you are about something in the present or past.

"She must be exhausted — she worked 14 hours today."

"gerunds and infinitives"

Some verbs are followed by a gerund (-ing), some by an infinitive (to + verb), and some by either — sometimes with a change in meaning.

"I stopped smoking" (quit) vs. "I stopped to smoke" (paused in order to).

"mixed conditionals"

Combining a past condition with a present result, or a present condition with a past result, to express complex hypothetical scenarios.

"If I had taken that job, I would be living in New York now."

"collocation"

Words that naturally go together in English. Learning collocations rather than individual words makes your English sound far more natural.

"Make a decision" (not "do a decision"), "heavy rain" (not "strong rain").

"word family"

A group of words formed from the same root, including different parts of speech. Knowing one word can help you learn four or five related forms.

Decide → decision → decisive → indecisive → decidedly.

"false friends"

Words that look or sound similar to a word in your language but have a completely different meaning in English.

Spanish "embarazada" means pregnant, not embarrassed. Russian "магазин" means shop, not magazine.

"register"

The level of formality in language. The same idea can be expressed formally, neutrally, or informally depending on the context.

"Commence" (formal), "begin" (neutral), "kick off" (informal) all mean to start something.

"connotation"

The emotional or cultural meaning associated with a word, beyond its literal dictionary definition. Words can be positive, negative, or neutral in tone.

"Slim" and "skinny" both mean thin, but "slim" sounds positive while "skinny" often sounds negative.

"prefix and suffix patterns"

Common word-building elements attached to the beginning (prefix) or end (suffix) of a word that change its meaning or part of speech.

Un- (unhappy), -tion (education), -ful (careful), re- (rewrite) — recognising these unlocks thousands of new words.

"topic vocabulary clusters"

Grouping words by theme rather than learning random lists. This creates stronger memory connections and prepares you for real conversations.

For the topic "environment": emissions, deforestation, renewable energy, carbon footprint, sustainability, habitat.

"spaced repetition"

A learning technique where you review vocabulary at increasing intervals, reviewing harder words more often and well-known words less often.

Review a new word after 1 day, then 3 days, then 1 week, then 2 weeks — this moves it to long-term memory.

"give up"

To stop trying to do something or to surrender a habit. One of the most common phrasal verbs in everyday English.

"She gave up trying to fix the printer and called the technician."

"put off"

To delay or postpone something, or to cause someone to dislike something.

"He keeps putting off going to the dentist because he finds it stressful."

"come across"

To find or meet something or someone by chance, or to give a certain impression to others.

"I came across this article while searching online — it's exactly what you need."

"break down"

For a machine to stop working, for negotiations to fail, or for someone to lose emotional control.

"The car broke down on the motorway, so we were late for the meeting."

"let someone down"

To disappoint someone by failing to do what they expected or needed from you.

"I promised I would be there, and I don't want to let you down."

"hit the nail on the head"

An idiom meaning to describe a situation exactly or to say something perfectly accurate.

"You hit the nail on the head — that is exactly what went wrong with the project."

"burn the midnight oil"

An idiom meaning to work or study late into the night in order to finish something.

"She's been burning the midnight oil all week to finish her dissertation."

"get the ball rolling"

An idiom meaning to start a process or activity, especially after a period of delay or inactivity.

"Let's get the ball rolling on the new marketing campaign — we've waited long enough."

"discourse markers"

Words and phrases that connect ideas and organise your speech, making it sound structured and natural to listeners.

"On the other hand", "having said that", "what's more", "to sum up" — these signal your meaning before you express it.

"filler phrases"

Short phrases used to keep a conversation going while you think, without going silent. Native speakers use these constantly.

"That's a good question...", "Let me think about that for a second...", "How can I put this..." keep the conversation flowing.

"hedging language"

Language that makes statements less absolute, expressing uncertainty or softening opinions to sound more polite and natural.

"I think", "as far as I know", "it seems to me", "you might want to consider" — used constantly in professional contexts.

"connected speech"

The way words link together, blend, and change sounds in natural spoken English — very different from how words sound individually.

"Do you want to?" sounds like "Dja wanna?" and "I don't know" sounds like "I dunno" in natural speech.

"intonation patterns"

The rise and fall of your voice, which carries meaning beyond the words. Wrong intonation can change meaning or make you sound rude.

A falling tone on "Really?" shows you believe someone; a rising tone shows surprise or disbelief.

"small talk strategies"

The art of light, friendly conversation that builds rapport. Knowing how to start, maintain, and close small talk is essential for social and professional settings.

"How's your week going?" "Not too bad, thanks — keeping busy! Do you have any plans for the weekend?"

"agreeing and disagreeing politely"

Language for expressing agreement or disagreement in a way that maintains good relationships and sounds professional.

"I see your point, but...", "I'd have to disagree there — I think...", "You're absolutely right about that."

"reformulation"

The skill of rephrasing what you have already said more clearly when you realise you have not been understood.

"What I mean is...", "Let me rephrase that...", "In other words..." — essential repair strategies for intermediate speakers.

"active listening"

Listening with full attention and purpose — focusing on key information, predicting what comes next, and checking your understanding as you go.

Before watching a TED Talk, note three questions you want answered. Check them off as you listen.

"extensive listening"

Listening to large amounts of English content that is slightly below your level for pleasure and fluency, without focusing on every word.

Watch an episode of a TV series you enjoy with English subtitles — understanding 80–90% is ideal.

"intensive listening"

Studying a short audio or video clip in detail: pausing, replaying, and analysing language, pronunciation, and meaning carefully.

Take a 2-minute news clip and transcribe every word. Then compare your transcript to the original text.

"inferring meaning from context"

Using surrounding information — vocabulary, tone, context, grammar — to deduce the meaning of words or sentences you do not know.

In "The CEO stepped down amid mounting pressure", "stepped down" can be inferred to mean resigned from context.

"accent familiarisation"

Deliberately exposing yourself to a wide range of English accents — American, British, Australian, Indian, Irish — to improve overall comprehension.

The BBC and CNN use different accents. Watching both regularly will improve your ability to understand diverse speakers.

"note-taking while listening"

Writing down key words, numbers, and ideas while listening to a lecture, meeting, or podcast to support memory and comprehension.

Use symbols (→ for leads to, ≠ for difference, ? for uncertain) to take notes faster without missing audio.

"bottom-up and top-down processing"

Bottom-up processing builds meaning from individual sounds and words; top-down uses prior knowledge and context. Both work together in real listening.

If you hear "election" you immediately activate top-down knowledge about politics, candidates, and voting.

"shadowing"

A technique where you listen to a recording and speak simultaneously, copying the speaker's rhythm, stress, and intonation to improve both listening and speaking.

Play a podcast at 90% speed and repeat each sentence as it plays — this trains your ear and mouth together.

"comprehensible input"

The theory that you acquire language by understanding messages slightly above your current level (i+1), not by drilling rules. Listening and reading are the main channels.

Choose YouTube videos or podcasts where you understand about 70–80% — challenging enough to grow, easy enough to follow.

"the intermediate plateau"

The frustrating stage where beginners become intermediate but progress slows because material feels too easy or too hard. The solution is deliberate practice at the right level.

If beginner series feel too easy but authentic podcasts feel impossible, you are on the plateau. Graded content is the bridge.

"output practice"

Actively producing language through speaking or writing, which forces your brain to process grammar and vocabulary more deeply than passive input alone.

Keep a daily journal in English: even five sentences about your day forces you to retrieve and use vocabulary actively.

"deliberate practice"

Focused, effortful work on specific weaknesses rather than just repeating what you already know. This is how intermediate learners continue improving.

If conditionals are a weakness, spend two weeks specifically reading, writing, and listening for conditional sentences.

"language exchange"

A partnership with a native English speaker learning your language, where you each help the other practice. Apps like Tandem and HelloTalk connect partners worldwide.

Spend 30 minutes speaking English, then 30 minutes speaking your partner's language — both of you benefit equally.

"chunking"

Learning language in meaningful groups (chunks) — phrases, fixed expressions, and collocations — rather than individual words. This is how native speakers store language.

Instead of learning "turn" and "around" separately, learn the chunk "turn around" with its meaning and common context.

"setting measurable goals"

Replacing vague goals ("improve my English") with specific, time-bound targets that you can actually measure and track.

"Learn 10 new collocations per week and use each one three times in writing" is measurable. "Be more fluent" is not.

"immersion at home"

Surrounding yourself with English throughout your daily life without travelling abroad, using technology to create an English-rich environment.

Change your phone language to English, listen to English radio while cooking, and read the news in English every morning.